New Technology Aids Archeologists

New technology gives on-site assessments in archaeology, is a EurekAlert article (public release 11/17/10) telling of a process capable of determining the origin of crystals i.e. whether they were formed by humans or by natural processes. The answer can be important in making inferences about ancient archeological sites but up to this point testing methods could take months to provide the needed information.

The device, connected with this discovery process, is easily transported and utilizes infrared light to gather spectral fingerprint information. The infrared spectroscopy exploits the fact that light is absorbed differently by different molecules. The differences account for distinct spectral peaks, or molecular fingerprints. Naturally formed calcite crystals are generally more tightly organized than those formed by humans.

The new process was a collaborative effort by physicists, materials scientists and archeologists. Testing was performed at an ancient site at Tel Safit in Israel, said to be near the location where David slew Goliath.

An Archeological Find in Jerusalem Relates to the Book of Nehemiah

The Bible contains narratives of many events which were alleged to have taken place during various ancient historical periods. Included in the accounts are interactions with different non-Jewish civilizations led by kings whose names are recorded. The specification of nations, places and named individuals allows for the possibility that physical evidence could affirm or negate biblical claims. The branch of science often used for this purpose is archeology.

Recently archeologists discovered a black stone seal with the name Temech engraved on it in Jerusalem. The stone had an image engraved on it as well and was dated between 538-445 B.C. The image shows two bearded priests standing by an altar. Their raised hands are consistent with a worship position. A crescent moon, the symbol of the chief Babylonian god Sin, is on top of the altar. The crescent moon symbolized the chief Babylonian god Sin.

What does the name Temech and the image mean? The Book of Nehemiah points to the significance of the name Temech. Nehemiah was a Jewish exile and a cupbearer for King of Persia Artaxerxes. Note the second chapter of the Book of Nehemiah, verses 7-9 (NIV):

I also said to him, “If it pleases the king, may I have letters to the governors of Trans-Euphrates, so that they will provide me safe-conduct until I arrive in Judah? 8 And may I have a letter to Asaph, keeper of the royal park, so he will give me timber to make beams for the gates of the citadel by the temple and for the city wall and for the residence I will occupy?” And because the gracious hand of my God was on me, the king granted my requests. 9 So I went to the governors of Trans-Euphrates and gave them the king’s letters. The king had also sent army officers and cavalry with me.

The Persian king authorizes and assists the return of Nehemiah to Jerusalem after Nehemiah had asked the king to send him there so he could rebuild it. There are historic claims made and names of individuals and places are linked to them. That's a basis upon which relevant physical evidence can be sought and assessed according to the biblical claims.

The seventh chapter of the Book of Nehemiah names exiles who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel, Joshua, Nehemiah, Azariah, Raamiah, Nahamani, Mordecai, Bilshan, Mispereth, Bigvai, Nehum and Baanah. Verse 55 mentions Temah:

55 Barkos, Sisera, Temah,

The Temech family is alluded to in this account from The Jerusalem Post:

The seal of one of the members of the Temech family was discovered just dozens of meters away from the Opel area, where the servants of the Temple, or "Nethinim," lived in the time of Nehemiah, Mazar said.

"The seal of the Temech family gives us a direct connection between archeology and the biblical sources and serves as actual evidence of a family mentioned in the Bible," she said. "One cannot help being astonished by the credibility of the biblical source as seen by the archaeological find."

An unexpected archeological find provides evidence connecting specified people to events within a known time period. The Bible is viewed as an accurate source of historic accounts by believers. With respect to the Temech family and the rebuilding of Jerusalem supporting evidence has been found.

King Nebuchadnezzar and the Destruction of Jerusalem

Depicted in chapters 24 and 25 of the Old Testament book 2 Kings is the role that Babylon and King Nebuchadnezzar played in events leading to and culminating in the destruction of Jerusalem and the Kingdom of Judah as well as the exile of Jews to Babylon. Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar leads his army against Jerusalem, governed at that time by King Jehoiachin. Verse 9 says this about Jehoiachin:

9 He did evil in the sight of the LORD, according to all that his father had done. (New American Standard Bible)

Note that a familiar biblical pattern is evident. Prior to the judgement delivered by Nebuchadnezzar, the commission of evil over a long period of time is evident. The reigning king Jehoiachin and his forefathers were described as having done evil. Chapter 24, verses 10 through 16 describe the dreadful consequences of the cumulative evil:

10 At that time the servants of Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon went up to Jerusalem, and the city came under siege.

11 And Nebuchadnezzar the king of Babylon came to the city, while his servants were besieging it.

12 Jehoiachin the king of Judah went out to the king of Babylon, he and his mother and his servants and his captains and his officials So the king of Babylon took him captive in the eighth year of his reign.

13 He carried out from there all the treasures of the house of the LORD, and the treasures of the king's house, and cut in pieces all the vessels of gold which Solomon king of Israel had made in the temple of the LORD, just as the LORD had said.

14 Then he led away into exile all Jerusalem and all the captains and all the mighty men of valor, ten thousand captives, and all the craftsmen and the smiths None remained except the poorest people of the land.

15 So he led Jehoiachin away into exile to Babylon; also the king's mother and the king's wives and his officials and the leading men of the land, he led away into exile from Jerusalem to Babylon.

16 All the men of valor, seven thousand, and the craftsmen and the smiths, one thousand, all strong and fit for war, and these the king of Babylon brought into exile to Babylon.

Nebuchadnezzar made Jehoiachin's uncle, Zedekiah, the new King of Judah. Unfortunately verse 19 records that "He did evil in the eyes of the Lord, just as Jehoiakim had done" (NIV). Jehoiakim was the brother of Zedekiah and the father of Jehoiachin. Zedekiah rebelled against King Nebuchadnezzar.

King Nebuchadnezzar led his entire army and laid seige to Jerusalem. The seige led to an exhaustion of food and when this happened Zedekiah and his army fled the city at night. The Babylonian army overtook them and scattered Zedekiah's soldiers. Nebuchadnezzar pronounced Zedekiah's sentence. Zedekiah witnessed the killing of his sons before he was blinded, shackled and taken to Babylon.

Years later, while Nebuchadnezzar was still king, Nebuzaradan, the commander of the Babylonian imperial guard, went to Jerusalem and burned the temple, the royal palace and houses of Jerusalem. All important buildings were burned down. The walls of the city were broken up and residents taken into exile. Some of the poorest people were left to tend the vineyards and fields.

The Babylonians took bronze from temple pillars and other parts of the temple in addition to items made of pure gold and silver. Pots, dishes bowls and more from the temple were confiscated. The chief priest and the priest next in rank, the officer in charge of fighting men and city officials were taken to the Babylonian king who had them executed. Judah suffered catatrophic defeat at the hands of the Babylonians.

Ancient Babylon in Middle East History

The history of the Middle East includes some of the most ancient recorded history of humanity. Israel and the Jewish people were the central focus of the Old Testament. Events recorded in the Old Testament provide history pertinent, not only to ancient Israel, but to surrounding nations as well. One of the ancient kingdoms of great prominence in the Bible is ancient Babylon.

Ancient Babylon was a powerful kingdom situated in what is presently modern Iraq. The Babylonians dominated their neighbors and conquered the Israelites in the sixth century B.C, bringing about the first great period of captivity since the Egyptian enslavement which culminated in the exodus led by Moses and empowered by God.

Babylon is symbolic in the Bible as a source of wickedness. It is alluded to in the first book of the Bible (Genesis) and the last (Revelation). Some sort of Babylonian expression is predicted for the end times. Note this prophetic passage from Revelation 18 (New International Version):

1 After this I saw another angel coming down from heaven. He had great authority, and the earth was illuminated by his splendor.
2 With a mighty voice he shouted:
“‘Fallen! Fallen is Babylon the Great!’
She has become a dwelling for demons
and a haunt for every impure spirit,
a haunt for every unclean bird,
a haunt for every unclean and detestable animal.
3 For all the nations have drunk
the maddening wine of her adulteries.
The kings of the earth committed adultery with her,
and the merchants of the earth grew rich from her excessive luxuries.
4 Then I heard another voice from heaven say:
“‘Come out of her, my people,’
so that you will not share in her sins,
so that you will not receive any of her plagues;
5 for her sins are piled up to heaven,
and God has remembered her crimes.
6 Give back to her as she has given;
pay her back double for what she has done.
Pour her a double portion from her own cup.
7 Give her as much torment and grief
as the glory and luxury she gave herself.
In her heart she boasts,
‘I sit enthroned as queen.
I am not a widow;
I will never mourn.’
8 Therefore in one day her plagues will overtake her:
death, mourning and famine.
She will be consumed by fire,
for mighty is the Lord God who judges her.

Perhaps the most significant contribution of ancient Babylon to civilization was its system of codified laws. Of historic note is the famous Hammurapi code which was the culmination of a laws extending back in time to around 2050 B.C.₁

The Bible History website features a web page titled Ancient Babylonia - History of Babylonia. One gets a good overview of the important role of Babylon in both Middle East history and the Bible. It is easy reading yet comprehensive, containing numerous helpful links to relevant topics which add a detailed picture of the region and its peoples within different time periods. The web page contains this reference which concisely indicates Babylonia's importance:

Babylonia (pronounced babilahnia) was an ancient empire that existed in the Near East in southern Mesopotamia between the Tigris and the Euphrates Rivers. Throughout much of their history their main rival for supremacy were their neighbors, the Assyrians. It was the Babylonians, under King Nebuchadnezzar II, who destroyed Jerusalem, the capital of the Kingdom of Judah, and carried God’s covenant people into captivity in 587 BC.

The Bible has much to say about King Nebuchadnezzar II and the destruction of Jerusalem. King Nebuchadnezzar was a most interesting character about whom there is much more to be written.


Reference:

1. Ancient Babylonia - History of Babylonia; www.bible-history.com/babylonia/BabyloniaHistory_of_Babylonia.htm

How was the Biblical Canon Determined?

All Scripture is inspired by God and profitable for teaching, for reproof, for correction, for training in righteousness;

2 Timothy 3:16; New American Standard Bible

Learning, correction and training in righteousness sound like worthy objectives to many but how can we know which writings of antiquity are scriptural? Which ones can we profit from? The Bible includes 66 books grouped into Old and New Testament parts. Multiple books known as the Apocrypha are considered canonical by the Roman Catholic Church but not by most other Christians. By what process were the different books included in the Canon and what books were excluded?

Norman Geisler expounds on Bible Canonicity in an entry found in the Baker Encyclopedia of Christian Apologetics. Geisler explains that the authority of scripture is established by God and discovered by God's people. The church does not determine scripture it discovers it. Establishing scripture is certainly within the capabilities of an all-powerful God but how do God's people, with all their limitations, go about the discovery of it.

Road map clues are found in scripture. Scripture was written by a select group of individuals through whom divine inspiration was effected. God's prophets distinguished themselves from false prophets through miracles enabled by God and performed through them. God's prophets also spoke the truth. Written records at variance with biblical truths signaled a false messenger. Miracles provided affirmation for authentic prophets. The testimony of an authentic prophet confers credibility to writings. A prophet's testimony leads to discovery of canonicity.

There is a sequential element connected to the discovery process. The many books of the Bible were written over a period of many centuries. The earlier books establish doctrinal foundations by which subsequent writings can be assessed. A writing not doctrinally consistent with earlier books could be ruled out of the Canon. Writing that is consistent with scripture and writing which confirms biblical prophecy signal canonical candidacy.

Accuracy is a major focal point. Accuracy encompasses historic data, moral themes and scriptural doctrine. The presence of errors indicates exclusion. Conversely inclusion in the Canon indicates an authentic message. That which "is inspired by God and profitable for teaching, for reproof, for correction, for training in righteousness" should be accurate and truthful. Scripture will not contain historic inaccuracies. The many times and places recorded in biblical accounts can be and has been confirmed by archeological discoveries.

The church then has been guided by consideration of authors and their relationship to God. The testimony of a credible author can be conclusive. Conformity to truth and accuracy are also canonical guides. God established the credibility Moses, Peter, Paul and others through miracles. The historic nature of the recorded books also allowed for assessment of new writings by the doctrinal foundation established by existing scripture. Inaccuracies signaled exclusion.